AP Biology

AP Biology

A. Chemistry of Life

1 Structure of atoms and molecules important for biology
2 Properties of water and its biological importance
3 Carbon and molecular diversity of life
4 Structure and function of biological macromolecules: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids
5 Enzymes: structure, function, and environmental impacts
6 Factors that affect enzyme activity
7 Metabolism basics: energy in biological systems

B. Cell Structure and Function

1 Prokaryotic vs eukaryotic cells
2 Structure and function of organelles
3 Cell membranes and selective permeability
4 Passive transport: diffusion and osmosis
5 Active transport mechanisms
6 Tonicity and water potential
7 Bulk transport: endocytosis and exocytosis
8 Cell compartmentalization and evolutionary origins

C. Cellular Energetics

1 Introduction to energy and life
2 Enzymes and their role in metabolism
3 Cellular respiration overview (glycolysis, Krebs cycle, oxidative phosphorylation)
4 Mitochondrial structure and function
5 Fermentation and anaerobic respiration
6 Photosynthesis overview (light reactions, Calvin cycle)
7 Chloroplast structure and function
8 Environmental factors affecting photosynthesis

D. Cell Communication and Cell Cycle

1 Cell signaling: direct contact, local signaling, long-distance signaling
2 Signal transduction pathways
3 Cellular responses to signals
4 Feedback mechanisms in cells
5 Cell cycle: interphase and mitosis
6 Regulation of the cell cycle and checkpoints
7 Apoptosis and its role in development and health

E. Heredity

1 Meiosis and genetic variation
2 Comparing mitosis and meiosis
3 Mendelian genetics: laws of segregation and independent assortment
4 Probability and Punnett squares
5 Complex inheritance patterns (incomplete dominance, codominance, multiple alleles, sex-linked traits)
6 Non-Mendelian inheritance (linked genes, gene interactions)
7 Chi-square analysis in genetics

F. Gene Expression and Regulation

1 Structure of DNA and RNA
2 DNA replication (enzymes involved and process)
3 Transcription and RNA processing
4 Translation and protein synthesis
5 Regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
6 Mutations: types and effects on proteins
7 Biotechnology basics: PCR, gel electrophoresis, cloning, CRISPR

G. Natural Selection

1 Evidence for evolution: fossils, biogeography, embryology, molecular evidence
2 Mechanisms of evolution: natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, mutation
3 Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and calculations
4 Types of selection: stabilizing, directional, disruptive
5 Speciation and reproductive isolation
6 Phylogenetic trees and cladograms

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H. Ecology

1 Introduction to ecosystems and energy flow
2 Food chains, food webs, and trophic levels
3 Biogeochemical cycles (water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus)
4 Population ecology: exponential and logistic growth models
5 Carrying capacity and limiting factors
6 Community interactions: competition, predation, symbiosis
7 Biodiversity and conservation ecology
8 Human impact on ecosystems (climate change, habitat loss)